ACT I: CHAMPLAIN AND THE ABENAKIS

INTRODUCTION:

Darkness Falls is the long-planned second volume of the “Against the Darkness” trilogy dramatizing the Vermont Abenaki experience.  Volume I (dealing with 1790-2005) was released in fall, 2006 as a “first burn” edition of 1000 CD/DVD “Combo Pack” video and associated databases for distribution to Vermont educational institutions.  Darkness Falls (concerning the period 1600-1790) will be released in the fall of 2008 or spring of 2009, in time for the Champlain Quadracentennial.  We intend that it will be shot in “high definition” format, but it will probably need to be down-converted to the NTSC format for release as a DVD/CD combination data pack.  Hopefully (assuming the technology is available) it can be released as a single High Definition Blu-ray disc, which will contain an interactive database directly addressable from the video. 

Like it the current volume, Darkness Falls will have several acts, each depicting a generation of Abenakis living in what would become Northwestern Vermont.  The script has been storyboarded, and awaits final modification pending feasibility analysis of set design, actor auditions, costuming and props.  Music, including traditional Wabanaki songs, rewritten and scored to non-percussion instruments, as well as “professional” orchestral music, will give emotional impact to the story line.  But the first act, dealing with Champlain’s arrival in the Lake is the most difficult in back story, script and scene construction.

Although the sequence of activities before, during, and after Champlain’s transit of the Lake, is well documented, the costuming and accessorizing actors for the Champlain episode is the most problematic of the series, due to the lack of descriptions of interior Wabanaki peoples before the late 1600’s.  I am therefore using Proto-contact archaeological data, unfortunately mostly lithics and ceramics (useful for property, but not costuming), combined with the few artifacts, mostly personal adornment, believed to be from the period.  We have also examined inland Wabanaki artifacts from a slightly later period that are made (almost) entirely from indigenous materials and technologies, to stand as proxies for earlier, long-lost material.  In addition we have used the venerable archaeological technique of ethnographic analogy.  In this case, the applicable historic analogues are restricted to descriptions of Wabanaki people, within 500 miles of Missisquoi (Swanton, VT—the center of the Darkness Falls performance) who were visited, observed and written about by Europeans immediately before and after the 1609 time period.

As you will see, large amounts of historical and archaeological research, and materials acquisition has been completed, this information and materials, while proprietary to the Wôbanakik Heritage Center and the Missisquoi Abenaki Community, can be made available to other legitimate Quadracentennial projects. 

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PART I:

AUTHENTICITY:

ETHNOHISTORIC INFORMATION AND INTERPRETATION

The 2006 PBS movie Desperate Crossings, dealing with the Wampanoag/”Pilgrim” contact experience, contained material anachronisms, such as loom-beaded shell wampum jewelry (introduced decades later).  We are attempting to produce a more accurate representation of early contact-era Wabanakis, and have diligently investigated the source material for leads in how to portray the material essence of 1609 Wabanaki life.  However, original data is but one “link” in a long chain of activities that make for accurate video costuming and property systems.  In a short internet paper called “A modest proposal? some thoughts on authenticity” (home.att.net/~crowdogs/The EasternFrontier/proposal), “living historian” Alan Gutchess offered a reasoned formula for assuring that historic recreations conform to the highest standards.  His common sense rules, which we have followed in our quest to “get it right” for the 1609 sequence, are listed below.

One:  Get the Documentation first—buy, commission or make last.

We have learned to follow this rule after having to discard or re-build many geographically inappropriate or anachronistic materials.

Two. Acceptable documentation should be derived solely from primary sources.

We have attempted to do this; but to complete our material systems; we have also had to use reliable secondary academic sources, or popular sources such as Kieth Wilbur’s books, or the “Glass Trade Beads in the Northeast” poster, that seem well grounded in original data.  However, if we come across primary source material that contradicts the secondary, we follow the primary.

Three. Document for commonality. Dare to be average.

Unfortunately, historic descriptions from the Champlain era are so rare that we do not have a good sense of commonality of materials at this time.

Four.  Document for appropriateness.

We have taken pains to be sure that the reproduced materials are geographically and temporally appropriate to the early 17^th century Champlain Valley.  We attempt to recreate Champlain-era materials as close to Vermont and 1609 as possible.  Since there is little but archaeological evidence in the early 17^th century Champlain Valley, we necessarily use analogy, first to other Wabanakis, then to other New England Algonkians.  We must also use temporal analogy as well, assuming that later (within 150 years), recorded or extant artifacts of indigenous materials are culturally traditional, and are not unlike those used earlier.  This requires a bit of care to separate introduced influences (such as florals in beadwork) from more traditional designs.  If we cannot find an appropriate analog within that area and time, we do not portray it.

Five.  Avoid all “phantom” documentation. 

We have discovered that a modern consensus about what is correct (such as the small, tubular wampum in Desperate Crossings) may be incorrect when compared to the archaeology and primary source material of the early 17^th century.

Six.  Trust no one born after 1800

For our purposes, we try to trust no one’s descriptions over 50 years later than the target “period”

Seven.  Avoid speculation if you can, and where you must, minimize the effect.

            See #4.

Eight.  Know the limitations of your own skills and abilities.

Our production is done without any significant outside funding, and is a labor of love by the Vermont Abenaki community.  We can only do our best.

Nine.  Whenever possible obtain products produced with period techniques and

 materials.

The closer the camera, the more we strive for period techniques and materials, but a low-budget film must make compromises, but we try to minimize the effect of material and technological inappropriateness to the plot and “look and feel” of the era portrayed.

Ten.  Be willing to periodically reevaluate your appearance and make corrections

accordingly.

We do this continually, as we discover new sources and documentation.

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General

The European records of the Abenakis and their neighbors indicate that the early 17^th century Champlain Valley inhabitants lived in a series of at least four villages on the lower reaches of the major rivers. 

There they (a Recollect missionary’s entourage) visited thriving villages in the lower reaches of the Missisquoi, as well as a satellite community at St. Albans Bay, Lamoille and Winooski rivers, and another further south, probably near the mouth of Otter Creek. A reference to a French 1615 account in Haviland and Power 1994: 1)

These Late Woodland Period villages were rather open groups of circular, semi-subterranean houses or longhouses with central fires and associated food storage pits.  Dugout canoes (known from the 1570 period in Vermont), and bark canoes (widely reported in the Northeast since the 1530’s) lined the village shore (Adney and Chaplele, 1983:7).  Outside of the villages were fields of corn as reported by Champlain on the eastern side of the lake in 1609 (Haviland and Power 1994:1, 138, 158, 160, 165).  Wabanaki villagers wore animal hides, especially deer and moose hide, formed the bulk of the raw material used for clothing, but some trade clothing was already in use (see “waistcoats” and “breeches” below).  Hides were decorated with earth pigment paints and even copper tubes.  Furs such as beaver, otter, bear or lynx (see “mantles” below) were used as well.  There is one reference to a coarse fabric (the “mat on the back” described below), probably an indigenous creation (since the observer could not classify it), being used as well.  One critical issue is the absence of any descriptions of women’s bodices in these references.  Since we cannot film our female actors bare-breasted, we have necessarily adopted the more modest bodice as authoritatively reconstructed by McGhee and Whitehead (1983).  Below are applicable archaeological data and observers’ quotations from the period.

Champlain Valley Proto-historic archaeological evidence

There is no evidence of European trade materials from proto-contact period Champlain Valley archaeological sites such as the Ewing Site on Shelburne Pond (Haviland and Power 1994: 146).  However, the more heavily studied archaeological sites in New York hold trade beads, and salvaged metals that flowed inland north and west from the 16^th century Mid-Atlantic, New England and Gulf of St. Lawrence coastal trade.  Therefore, we can safely assume that equivalent materials were available to the geographically intermediate Champlain Valley Abenakis.  However, there is a significant inventory of proto-contact materials made from indigenous materials.

Stone and bone tools.

The bow and arrow seemed to be the main hunting tool along the western shore of the Lake, with the arrows tipped with the distinctive “Levanna” triangular point (e.g. at the Donohue site on the Winooski River,the Ewing site on Shelburne pond, , and Carvers Falls on the Poultney River, (Haviland and Power 1994: 143, 146, 149).  Bone harpoons were also used -- a barbed example with at least twelve barbs were found at the Chipman’s Point Site in Addison Co. (Haviland and Power 1994:148)

Industrial implements include chipped-stone biface knives and scrapers (e.g. at the Donohue site on the Winooski River (Haviland and Power 1994:143), reworked teeth including split beaver incisors, and a worked bear canine and bone awls at the Chipman’s Point Site (Haviland and Power 1994:148).  Plant processing tools included a stone rod, presumably a pestle (Donohue Site; Haviland and Power 1994:143), and a mortar (Ewing Site on Shelburne Pond; (Haviland and Power 1994:146).  We also find the remains of elk in the Champlain Valley (Ewing Site; (Haviland and Power 1994:146), so the larger elk bone and antler tools as found north and west of the Valley are possible here as well.

Pottery.

The pottery was uniformly “Owasco-like,” globular based pots with flared castellated rims with incised designs at the often-castellated, sometimes-squarish rims. (ibid 148-152)

Beads

At the Carvers Falls site on the Poultney River comes an intriguing find, a tubular shell bead 1” long X ¼” diameter (Haviland and Power 1994:149).  This is an important find in that Speck (  ) believes that the tubular shell bead did not become common until after contact.  This may represent an indigenous prototype.  Prehistoric copper beads were tubular and globular, graduated—largest in the center, smallest at the ends.  Strung on braided fiber strings, some of twisted cedar inner bark (Flanders, 1977:2,3). 

Trade beads

Henry Hudson in 1609 saw Natives in European Shallops with trade goods, noting that the French traded red cassocks (long cloth garments with sleeves), knives, hatchets, copper kettles, trivets (iron stands to hold pots over a fire), and beads (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987: 14). 

As pointed out above, no trade beads have been discovered in 1609-era sites in the Champlain Valley.  Apparently, sailors and fishermen began trading Eurasian beads to natives along the eastern shore of North America in the 1500’s (Flanders, 1977:10).  For example, Giovanni Verranzano, sailing under the French Flag, explored Wabanaki Country from Massachusetts Bay to Cape Breton.  He indicated that in 1524, he had traded “bells, azure crystals and other toys to hang in their ears and around their neck” to the Indians of southern New England  (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987: 260).  The azure crystals were probably “Nueva Cadiz” beads, a long multi-layered blue bead, square in cross section; a highly distinctive 16^th century European bead type usually associated with the Spanish trade in the New World.  However, one Nueva Cadiz bead is known with a provenance from St. Eloi on the St. Lawrence.  This may have come from Verranzanno’s ship, or perhaps Cartier’s expedition, or even later Basque/Spanish traders at Tadoussac, which was just across the river from St. Eloi.  In addition, other, later sixteenth and early 17^th century bead styles were found at sites from New York to Pennsylvania, well inland from the coasts.  These bead types will serve as proxies for the yet undiscovered Champlain Valley Wabanaki material.  Therefore, the bead data for the film is by geographic analogy to well-dated Northeastern North American sites.  The most available and easy-to-use information source for appropriate trade beads for the 1600 period is the poster “Glass Trade Beads in the Northeast” (published in 1991 by the Fogelman Publishing Co. RD 1 Box 240 Turbotville, PA 17772, along with an explanatory book), which shows beads, full size and in full color, arranged along a timeline.  The “1575,” and “1600” sections of the poster shows scores of beads (from Northeastern archaeological sites) that would be appropriate reconstructing Champlain-era glass bead necklaces and decorations.  Many of these beads are quite similar to modern beads sold by “Indian craft” organizations.  Round or slightly elongated beads ranging from a bit larger than ½” diameter down to ¼” seem most common, most with thin longitudinal white lines on a dark blue, rust-red or alternating blue and red background.  Multi- layer “chevron” beads are found as well.  Solid colors include clear, white, and light and medium blue beads.  Tubular beads from ½” to 2” long are found in light blue and multi-striped varieties.  Seed beads ranging from 8/0 to about 10/0 size are found in white, light and medium blue, and white with thin blue stripes. 

Contact period General Observations

Applicable quotes:

…clothed in beaver skins and other furs.  In winter... good furs of beaver and moose... Penobscot Bay in 1604/5, from Champlain 1922 I:298, 308, III:363, 371

Armouchiqouois have no furs, but only chamois, often they have only a piece of mat upon their back.  Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, 1606 in Lescarbot 1907 III: 132-133

Their apparel before the English came … was the skins of wild beasts with the hair on.  Buskins of deerskin or moose drest and drawn with lines into several works… the lines being yellow, blue or red.  Western Maine Abenakis, 1671 in Josselyn 1988:92-93

We do have descriptions from the Maritimes of painted borders on robes, on moccasin cuffs and vamps and across the bottoms and up the sides of leggings…. Bands of lines realistic and geometric motifs and a lacelike pattern possibly the double curve motif.  Paints were made from red and yellow ochre, charcoal, lignite and manganese and ground white shell...a vegetable dye like indigo... now unknown.  Whitehead 2001: 255

(Porcupine quills … could be woven into strips that looked almost like woven beadwork (the bags of porcupine quills woven and died..  Quill embroidery on leather . Whitehead 2001: 255

Contact period Haircuts

Discussion

Re-enactors generally prefer to portray the period with their hair shaved, except perhaps for a scalp lock.  However, this minimalist tonsorial style is a later phenomenon.  In the late 1500’s and early 1600’s, there are repeated descriptions of Wabanakis wearing their hair long, either up on the back of the head, or loose on the shoulders. 

Applicable quotes

They wear their hair hanging down before their behind as low as their navels.  Etienne Belanger,  Coast of Maine 1583, in Quinn 1962 340-41

Wear their hair…hanging down below their girdle... they truss them up as do our grooms do a horse’s tail, and the men do stick some feathers which take their fancy, and the women a bodkin with three points.  They pull out their hair in front and are half bald. Southern Maine Coast, Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

As for headgear, none of the savages have any, but both men and women wear their hair loose upon their shoulder, unbound and untied. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

On their heads they wear nothing. Western Maine Abenakis, 1671 in Josselyn 1988:92-93

Headdresses

Discussion

The issue of the nature of early 17^th century headdresses is one that is very hard to glean from the original source material on the Wabanakis.  We have a description of a roach-like “coronet” and apparently some kind of feather-covered skullcap.

Applicable quotes:

One... wore a coronet of stiff hair colored red... more than a handful in depth   others wore white feathered skins of fowl around their heads, jewels in their ears and bracelets of little white round bone fastened together with a leather string. Rosier (1605) in 1983;287, Whitehead 2001: 262

Body and Face Painting

Discussion:

We have an excellent description of the colors used in face painting from Rosier, but little on the designs except for the “stripes of excellent blue.” 

Applicable quotes:

…paint their bodies with black, their faces, some with red, some with black and some with blue. Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

Painted their faces some all black, some red, with stripes of excellent blue over their upper lips. Rosier 1983:287

Cloaks and mantles

It seems that everyone wore mantles (often called “matchcoats”), all through the Wabanaki area.  There seem to be three types.  The first is a lightweight leather  (or “chamois”) mantle, perhaps for ceremonial use.  The second is a single bear hide with the fur on, probably quite warm for cold weather and sleeping use.  The third is a composite mantle of many beaver or otter hides used in the same way as the bear hide.

Applicable quotes:

…have on their backs a cloak made of many skins, if these be of otters or beavers…and a single skin if it be of moose bear or lynx (??), which cloak is tied near the shoulder with a leather strap, usually with one arm out.  Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Armouchiqouois have no furs, but only chamois, often they have only a piece of mat upon their back.  Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, 1606 in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

(Men)... clothing of beavers skins or deer skins cast over themselves like a mantle hanging down to their knees. Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

Cassocks (European introduction)

Discussion

Henry Hudson in 1609 noted that the French traded red cassocks to the Maine coastal peoples.  These cloth garments were not the ankle-length style today associated with ecclesiastical attire, but were probably the loose pullover hip-length jacket (or longer if in the 16^th century “Spanish” style) of the common soldier of the 16^th century.  However, the old original French word "casaque" meant “cloak;” and so a sleeveless cape may have been what was Hudson was referring to, but this is less likely.  Either way, cassocks were apparently early 17^th century trade clothing, as well as a source for European cloth.

Applicable quotes

Hudson (1609 exploration of Penobscot Bay, Maine) was greeted by “a number of country people” exhibited trade goods “for the French trade with them red cassocks, knives, hatchets, copper kettles, trivets (iron stands to hold pots over a fire), beads and other trifles. (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987: 14). 

Sleeves

Discussion

Detachable sleeves, separate from the bodice, seems to be a distinctive article of dress in the Contact Period Wabanaki area.  They are basically leggings for the arms, and are constructed and attach in much the same way.  We are also lucky to have one early illustration of a Micmac Wabanaki woman with sleeves from the rear, in an ecclesiastical drawing from Nova Scotia.

Applicable quotes:

In winter both sexes make good beaver sleeves tied behind.  Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Some of them had sleeves… Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

Waistcoat (European introduction)

Applicable quotes:

(Bartholomew) Gosnold’s (1602) expedition…waistcoat and breeches of black serge, pair of breeches of blue cloth  Whitehead 2001: 262

Belts and Girdles

One of the most interesting descriptions is that of belts made of copper tubes and or decorated with copper beads or conchas.  There is no detail on the leather belts; they may be single straps or finger woven of many strands.

Applicable quotes:

Children‘s belts decked round with little pieces of red copper. Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

 and about their haunches girdles fashioned of copper quills as long as one’s middle finger, strung together to the length of a girdle. 

Women they have a girdle over the skin they have on. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Women:  …covered with thin leather buskins fastened with straps to a girdle about their waists… Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

Aprons

Discussion

Apparently everyone wore aprons, squares of cloth to cover up the front and back.  Many of these may also be breechcloths (see below).

Applicable quotes:

They all go naked saving their privates which they cover with an apron, and tie it with a long buff girdle that comes three times about them being made fast behind and at both ends.  It is cut into little thin thongs, which thongs they tie around them with slender quills of bird feathers some are red as if they had been died in cochineal.  Etienne Belanger,  Coast of Maine 1583, in Quinn 1962 340-41

yet with their privy members covered with a piece of leather or foliage.

Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, 1606 in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

…under their belly they wear a square of leather and the like upon their posteriors, both fastened with a string tied about them to hide their secrets.  Western Maine Abenakis, 1671 in Josselyn 1988:92-93

Breechcloths

Discussion

Both men and women wore these.  The beaver skin, apparently with hair on, has not been used by re-enactors before.

Applicable quotes:

Over these (private) parts with a skin tied to a leather strap, which passing between their buttocks, join at the back the other end of said strap…. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

…a piece of beaver skin between their legs. Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

Pouches

Applicable quotes:

Their girdles have also before a little—purse of buff, within which they put… their tinder to keep fire in. Etienne Belanger,  Coast of Maine 1583, in Quinn 1962 340-41

Breeches (European introduction)

Discussion

It is quite obvious that European clothing was in use during the Champlain Era, as exemplified by the description of breeches being worn by coastal Wabanakis.

Applicable quotes:

 (Bartholomew) Gosnold’s (1602) expedition…breeches of black serge, pair of breeches of blue cloth.  Whitehead 2001: 262

Leggings

Discussion

Leggings were universal, and designed exactly the same way as later historic period ones.  We have a description of them being fringed as well. 

Applicable quotes:

In winter going to sea or hunting, they put on great high stockings, like our boot-hose which they tie to their girdles, and on the outer edge are a great number of points without tags (fringe).  Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, 1606 in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Pumps too they have, made of tough skins without soles  Western Maine Abenakis, 1671 in Josselyn 1988:92-93

Women:  …covered with thin leather buskins fastened with straps to a girdle about their waists… Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

some had buskins (leggings) of leather tewed (fringed)… Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

Moccasins

Applicable quotes:

They wear shoes which they call mekezin.  Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, 1606 in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Jewelry

Applicable quotes:

…personal ornaments … shells, paint, leather, furs, quills, beaks, feathers, bone, antler, teeth claws,… wood and stone.  Rosier 1983:287

.. have a fashion of wearing on their wrists and above the ankles plates of copper, formed like fetters,

Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, 1606 in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Accessories

Their weapons… are bows two yards long and arrows one yard long headed with indented bones three or four inches long, and are tied into a nocke..with leather. Etienne Belanger,  Coast of Maine 1583, in Quinn 1962 340-41

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PART II 

CLOTHING CONSTRUCTION BASED ON EXPLORERS’ INFORMATION

In order to approximate the clothing worn by the Champlain Basin Abenakis in 1609, we had to rely on archaeology, which showed that cloth and cordage were used in the Missisquoi area before contact, as well as the applicable observations of Coastal Wabanaki clothing by early 1600’s European explorers. 

RECONSTRUCTED MALE CLOTHING

Moose hair coronet.  This item is a “best guess” reconstruction of the coronet of stiff hair colored red... more than a handful in depth mentioned by Rosier in 1605 (1983: 287).  The “coronet” term implies a larger crown-strap headdress rather than the top-of-the-scalp roach used later in the Colonial Period, so we tied moose-hair to a brain-tanned leather strap that could the be tied around the head as a headband.  The lower portion of the moose hair was painted red with ochre pigment, with a carbon-black line of decoration. 

Male wigs

We have purchased two theatrical wigs for use since the early accounts are very explicit about the length of the man’s hair.  For example, coast of Maine Abenakis in 1583 (wore)..their hair hanging down before their behind as low as their navels.  (Etienne Belanger, in Quinn 1962 340-41) and the Southern Maine Coast Abenakis: wear their hair…hanging down below their girdle...  (Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133), while the 1606, Bay of Fundy Etchemin: both men and women wear their hair loose upon their shoulder, unbound and untied. (Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133).  These can be restrained with the coronet (above) or with a braided headband.

Face paint

We have procured black, red, and blue theatrical make-up to approximate the descriptions of early 1600’s face painting by the Coastal Wabanakis:  Painted their faces some all black, some red, with stripes of excellent blue over their upper lips. (Rosier 1983:287)

Jewelry

Jewelry was made of almost all natural materials, for example Rosier (1983:287) mentions:…personal ornaments … shells, paint, leather, furs, quills, beaks, feathers, bone, antler, teeth, claws,… wood and stone.  So far we have made thirteen necklaces of natural materials, including bone, rolled copper tube and shell beads, bear tooth and claws, as well as mountain lion and wolf claws, and deer dewclaws.  We have made on clam shell “moon,” a large disc with engraved quatrefoil with fleur de lys finials, similar to one reported from the Middle Connecticut River Valley (Hamilton 19--:  ).  In addition, there is abundant mention of copper jewelry, and there are copper ornaments in Champlain Basin archaeological sites.  For example, the 1606 Southern Maine Coast Abenakis: have a fashion of wearing on their wrists and above the ankles plates of copper, formed like fetters,(Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133).  We have made sheet copper bracelets and anklets with repousse designs based on double-scroll quillwork on mid 18^th century Champlain Basin leather bags.  Contrary to other early 1600’s documentaries, we do not include the loom woven bands of cylindrical shell wampum beads, since they are not reported until 20 or so years after Champlain.  However, an earlier “spindle” shaped shell bead seems to appear at this early date, so we have made hypothetical necklaces and wampum strings of this type of bead.  Lastly, there is abundant evidence from the mid 1500’s of glass trade beads being used in the area.  We have consulted the appropriate archaeometric charts to match period bugle, chevron, and wound beads with analogous modern examples that have been used in necklaces and clothing trim. 

Matchcoat/cloak

There are two basic types of large cloaks described for these early times.  First, there are the ones made with the hair on:  a cloak made of many skins, if these be of otters or beavers…and a single skin if it be of moose bear or lynx (??), which cloak is tied near the shoulder with a leather strap, usually with one arm out, described by Lescarbot in 1606 (1907 III: 132-133) or the beavers skins…cast over themselves like a mantle hanging down to their knees listed by Rosier at Pemaquid, ME in 1604 (1983:276-77).  We have not had the budget to acquire large skins, so we have used artificial fur yard goods, cut to simulate the outline of skins--one a black to simulate black bear, and one a curly brown with light highlights to simulate beaver.

The second type is leather with the hair removed as described by Lescarbot in 1606 for the Southern Maine Coast Abenakis: Armouchiqouois have no furs, but only chamois…upon their back. (1907 III:132-133).  To make this type of cloak we sewed together three sueded deerskins to make a single mantle.

Man’s brain-tanned “sleeves” with red ochre and carbon black designs. Laced together in the back.  

These were made to copy Whitehead and McGhee’s beautiful reconstructions of precontact Micmac life, but also are described for the Coastal Maine Wabanakis, so it is quite reasonable to assume that the Wabanakis of the Champlain Basin wore similar clothing.  References include:  In winter both sexes make good beaver sleeves tied behind. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, (Lescarbot 1907 III: 132-133) and Some of them had sleeves… Pemaquid, ME, 1604 (Rosier 1983:276-77)

Leather breechcloth; leather belts. 

The leather breechcloth was universal among Native men during the early Contact period, before the acceptance of European breeches (which was quite early see “breeches”).  We do not know exactly what the “leather strap” looked like, so to make it more visually interesting, we made two, the first of thin leather thongs braided to make a thin supple strap belt, and a second finger-woven of a series of strips to make a heavier belt.  References include:  Over these (private) parts with a skin tied to a leather strap, which passing between their buttocks, join at the back the other end of said strap…. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606 (Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133)

Cloth breechcloth. 

The presence of cloth (some quite sophisticated with interwoven animal hair embroidery) in the precontact Missiquoi region is undeniable from the archaeological remains at the Boucher site.  There are also a couple of hints that this was the case during the contact period of Coastal Maine.  For example, Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133) in describing the Southern Maine Coast Abenakis in 1606 notes that they “have only a piece of mat upon their back,” obviously referring to some coarse -woven garment.  Therefore, we decided to go with a coarsely woven linen breechcloth, to approximate the look of indigenous cloth apparel.

Leggings

Men wore leather leggings with fringe.  For example the Southern Maine Coast Abenakis in 1606:…going to sea or hunting, they put on great high stockings, like our boot-hose which they tie to their girdles, and on the outer edge are a great number of points without tags (fringe).  (Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133), while the ME Wabanakis … Pumps too they have, made of tough skins without soles  (Josselyn 1988:92-93), and the Coastal Abenakis: some had buskins (leggings) of leather tewed (fringed)… (Rosier 1983:276-77).  We have made one pair of men’s fringed leggings, and intend to make more.

Moccasins

We have made one set of large moccasins so far.  The Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, in 1606 … wear shoes which they call mekezin. (Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133)

RECONSTRUCTED FEMALE CLOTHING

In order to approximate Champlain Basin Abenakis women’s clothing worn in 1609, we had to rely on archaeology, which showed that cloth and cordage were used in the Missisquoi area before contact, as well as the applicable observations of Coastal Wabanaki clothing by early 1600’s European explorers.  The major problem, mentioned above, is that Wabanaki women apparently went bare-breasted, at least during the warmer months.  We could attempt to rely on cloth or fur matchcoats (a square of skin or cloth draped over one shoulder, passing around the girdle) to cover the actresses’ uppers, but this is fraught with peril – please see below.

Hair fashions

As for headgear, none of the savages have any, but both men and women wear their hair loose upon their shoulder, unbound and untied. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Face Painting

…paint their bodies with black, their faces, some with red some with black and some with blue. Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77

Bodice:

A major problem in reconstructing women’s clothing for this period is the lack of mention of blouses, jackets, bodices or upper wear of any kind.  For instance, Etienne Belanger in describing Coast of Maine Wabanakis in 1583 noted that:  They all go naked saving their privates which they cover with an apron (Quinn 1962 340-41).  There is only one reference to “sleeves” being worn by women in winter (Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133).  This data on a lack of upper wear may imply that Wabanaki women tended to go bare-breasted, a custom that has since gone out of fashion, and therefore impossible to portray.  So in this case we have decided to add an undocumented, and possibly fictional piece of clothing, the fringed bodice to the mix.  Thus we followed the lead of Whitehead and McGhee in making fringed bodices to cover the actors’ uppers.  We have made so far a small fringed bodice, a large fringed bodice, a large fringed bodice w/shells and a “ragged” bodice.

Sleeves

At this point we have not made leather sleeves for the women actresses, since the action will be probably only be taking place in the summer.  In winter both sexes make good beaver sleeves tied behind. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133.

Matchcoat/cloak

Women as well as men wore matchcoats.  As pointed out above, we have not had the budget to acquire large skins, so we have used artificial fur yard goods, cut to simulate the outline of skins--one a black to simulate black bear, and one a curly brown with light highlights to simulate beaver.  We also sewed together three sueded deerskins to make a single mantle.

Cloth chemise

The presence of cloth (some quite sophisticated with interwoven animal hair embroidery) in the precontact Missiquoi region is undeniable from the archaeological remains at the Boucher Site.  Therefore, we decided to make a coarsely woven linen women’s breechcloth, and a coarse burlap chemise, trimmed with deerskin, to approximate the look of indigenous cloth apparel.

Skirts/girdles/aprons

We have standardized on the wrapped skirt supported and/or suspended from finger woven or complexly fringed and painted belts (girdles). They all go naked saving their privates which they cover with an apron, and tie it with a long buff girdle that comes three times about them being made fast behind and at both ends.  It is cut into little thin thongs, which thongs they tie around them with slender quills of bird feathers some are red as if they had been died in cochineal.  Etienne Belanger,  Coast of Maine 1583, in Quinn 1962 340-41.  Women:  …covered with thin leather buskins fastened with straps to a girdle about their waists… Pemaquid, ME, 1604 in Rosier 1983:276-77.  Women they have a girdle over the skin they have on. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133.  We have also made a “grass skirt,” since this is a rather widespread North American form, hinted at by Lescarbot.…yet with their privy members covered with a piece of leather or foliage.  Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, 1606 in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133.  However, we have set aside two leather breechcloths for women’s use since they seem to be described in this report:  Over these (private) parts with a skin tied to a leather strap, which passing between their buttocks, join at the back the other end of said strap…. Bay of Fundy Etchemin 1606, in Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133

Jewelry

Jewelry was made of almost all natural materials, for example Rosier (1983:287) mentions:…personal ornaments … shells, paint, leather, furs, quills, beaks, feathers, bone, antler, teeth, claws,… wood and stone.  So far we have made thirteen necklaces of natural materials, including bone, rolled copper tube and shell beads, bear tooth and claws, as well as mountain lion and wolf claws, and deer dewclaws.  In addition, there is abundant mention of copper jewelry, and there are copper ornaments in Champlain Basin archaeological sites.  For example, the 1606 Southern Maine Coast Abenakis: have a fashion of wearing on their wrists and above the ankles plates of copper, formed like fetters,(Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133).  We have made sheet copper bracelets and anklets with repousse designs based on double-scroll quillwork on 18^th century Champlain Basin leather bags.  Contrary to other early 1600’s documentaries, we do not include the loom woven bands of cylindrical shell wampum beads, since they are not documented until 20 or so years after Champlain.  However, an earlier “spindle” shaped shell bead seems to appear at this early date, so we have made hypothetical necklaces and wampum strings of this type of bead.  Lastly, there is abundant evidence from the mid 1500’s of glass trade beads being used in the area.  We have consulted the appropriate charts to match period bugle, chevron, and wound beads with analogous modern examples that have been used in necklaces and clothing trim. 

Moccasins

We have made three sets of small moccasins.  The Southern Maine Coast Abenakis, in 1606 … wear shoes which they call mekezin. (Lescarbot 1907 III:132-133)

RECONSTRUCTED 1609 PERIOD PERSONAL/PORTABLE ACCESSORIES

Any film must have props in addition to costume and sets.  Reconstructing the material culture of the Champlain-era Wabanakis is relatively straightforward.  It is based on archaeological materials, as in the arrowheads, pipe bowls and ceramics that give us our best local data.  It is also based on analogy with later Wabanaki materials that are derived from pre-contact sources. 

Hunting and fishing equipment

Hatchet

Hudson in his 1609 exploration of the Penobscot Bay, noted that the “country people” had obtained hatchets from the French (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987: 14).  

Knives

Hudson in his 1609 exploration of the Penobscot Bay, noted that the “country people” had obtained knives from the French (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987: 14).  

Repeating lance (two lances, three fore-shafts)

We have re-created an ivory-socketed repeating lance with fore shaft (we need more fore shafts).  This tool, believed to have been used in Paleo-Indian times, may have been used for large game throughout the pre-contact period.  In 1973, a repeating lance fore shaft with attached Archaic-period stone point was found on Cape Cod—documenting their use in New England.

Steel headed lance. (2 lances) 

The Heritage Center has a single long-tanged forged iron spear point (date unknown, probably 18the century) from the Lamoille Valley to document their use in the region.  It is known that swords were sold to tribes of the eastern woodlands in the 17^th century (Tyler, 2001: 121), often for eventual conversion to lance points.  We have re-created two 10’ ash-wood lances with steel heads.  Although the forged-iron spearhead may be as early as the Champlain era, more research needs to be done. 

Fish spear (2 tridents)

We have two trident fish spears; one is weathered to look like it has been well used.

Harpoons (One large and one small)

Harpoons are well known from Wabanaki archaeological sites.  For example, Wilbur (2001:75) illustrates several from Maine shell heaps. We have manufactured a small two-piece harpoon with a small ivory point.  In addition, we have a large harpoon for marine whales, which were taken in the early 1600’s (up to 72 feet long.)  The whaling party was described as a “multitude of their boats and strike him (the whale) with a bone fastened with a rope (Sargent, 1995:6).  For purposes of the Darkness Falls script, ours would be theoretically usable for large sturgeons in Lake Champlain.

Atlatl and darts.  (2 atlatls, 5 darts)

We have an atlatl/dart set and a “pack” of dart shafts.  Although still used in what is now the southeastern United States in the 1500’s, it is unknown whether the atlatl was used in Wabanaki country during contact times—it probably best for the Archaic Period reconstruction.

Bows and arrows: (3 large, one small bow, 16 arrows)

The oldest undisputed archery artifacts date to 500AD (Tyler, 2001: 122), and guns mostly superceded them by the 1700’s.  Thus the bow was the major tool of the hunt and warpath in the Champlain Era.  We have made a small reproduction bow, appropriate for a child.  We also have made three larger bows to approximate those described by Etienne Belanger on the Coast of Maine in 1583  Their weapons… are bows two yards long and arrows one yard long headed with indented bones three or four inches long, and are tied into a nocke..with leather. )  Quinn 1962 340-41).  In addition, Wilbur (2001: 6) notes that later New England natives also used long bows five or six feet long.  These historic weapons were round, oval or “d”-shaped in cross section.  Historic bow-woods included hickory, ash, beech, maple, witch hazel, and black locust.  Bow wood was traditionally cut in winter when the sap is down—often done during the moose hunt (Sargent, 1995:13).  Ours have been made from ash and maple.  Although early European observers noted that the bows could shoot an arrow up to 120 yards, they were effective weapons only at 30-40 yards.  However, a reconstruction of the famous 17th century “Sudbury bow” shot an arrow 177 yards (Wilbur 2001:7, Tyler, 2001: 67 Sargent, 1995:45), so perhaps bows had a longer effective range.

Bows were rarely decorated, with red, black and yellow paint, with stripes all around the bow (Wilbur 2001: 10).  In addition, the Heritage Center collections contain a 4.5’ eighteenth century example with transverse red-ochre lines, only on the front of the bow—this was used as a formal and decorative prototype for a longer 6’ example that was “extended laterally,” stained and painted to echo the original.  We also made a 6’ bow based on the famous Wampanoag “Sudbury bow,” 5’6” long made of hickory, adapted from Keith Wilbur’s plans (Wilbur 2001:7). The original pulled 46 lb, 28”draw and a 177 yard cast. (Tyler, 2001: 67).  It is claimed that the Sudbury bow was ideal for a deer bow (Sargent, 1995:12).  Our “Sudbury bow” was stained a light maple color.  Lastly we adapted a highly decorated historic 19^th century Penobscot painted bow in the Heritage Center collection, by lengthening it and thickening its mid-section.  The original bow’s polychrome 19^th century paint designs were then re-drafted on the new bow in red-ochre, yellow-ochre, and black—the earth colors appropriate to the early 17^th century.  Historic bowstrings are reported as being double strings of sinew that were then rolled and twisted.  However, sinew bowstrings lost their elasticity when wet, hunters or warriors carried extras (Tyler, 2001: 122), but a later Iroquois bow used doubled hemp cordage, 13/64^” diameter. (Sargent, 1995:3), and this would avoid the problem.  Thus we used both sinew and hemp as our bowstrings.

Historic New England arrows were usually made from hazel, dogwood, arrow-wood, and serviceberry, with hickory quite rare (Wilbur 2001:11).  Northeastern arrows were often nocked by a shallow 3/64^th curve in the end, with a long flat indentation in front of it.  Fletching could be from the split feathers of any bird, then glued or tied to the arrow shaft with sinew.  This indicates that the bow was drawn with a pinch release, which puts less strain on the bow than a three-finger release. (Sargent, 1995:3).  The Heritage Center has one nineteenth century Penobscot wood-headed “bird arrow” with red ochre line and dot decoration that can serve as inspiration for reconstructing traditional decoration.  Although most of the replicated arrows have stone points as discussed archaeologically, Gosnold reported, in 1602, points of red copper and some of a pale copper or brass (Wilbur 2001: 18) and a Western Massachusetts arrow point was made from a recycled hand-forged nail (Wilbur 2001:20).  Therefore, we need to replicate metal points as illustrated in Hothem’s Indian trade goods (pp.  ).  We have two sets of six arrows made from hickory wood, Most of the replica arrows have two feathers, some with three--since northeastern arrow fletching, according to Wilbur (1995: 82), consists of two or three feathers.  Northeastern arrow quivers were made from animal skin, bark (a plan for a bark quiver is in Wilbur 2001:75), and halves of a wooden cylinder (Wilbur, 1995: 82). 

Ceremony

Spiral shaft staff

            This is a tall imposing staff that can be used in reconstructing ceremonies.

Panel Burned staff

This is a shorter staff based on a 19^th century example in the Wôbanakik Heritage Center’s collections.

Wampum strings

Wampum belts were apparently not used in the early 17^th century, and it is unclear if shell beads were used to make “strings” in 1609.  We have created a string made of white disc beads, and one of spindle-shaped beads to represent the possibility.

Personal and ceremonial pipes

There is a published “L” shaped pipe with basal keel that was from Missisquoi, from the Hemp Yard site.  This steatite pipe head approximates it, but the pipe stem and feather decoration is conjectural.  A steatite “mortar-shaped” pipe head was reconstructed from one in the Marvin Collection, apparently originally from Cambridge, VT.  A Micmac style pipe, a common, eastern-style pipe that was certainly used in the area was also made for the film.

Warfare

Warfare generally used the same kinds of weapons that were required for big-game hunting, except for armor and clubs.

Ball-head and root clubs

Champlain described a “Pick Axe” type of war-club in his 1609 travels (Tyler, 2001: 18), and the Iroquois and Southern New England Natives used a “Sword-type” club (Tyler, 2001: 20).  The Gunstock Club, usually associated with the tribes of the Midwest, is known to have been used in Northeast in the beginning of the 17^th century (Tyler, 2001: 23).  Lastly, the earliest examples of the “Spontoon” Tomahawk were from the St. Lawrence and Champlain Valleys (Tyler, 2001: 27), and so could also figure in the “Champlain era.  We also have accounts of a chief putting a tomahawk on the ground, and the war leader picking it up. (Tyler, 2001: 30)

We have two root clubs, one walnut-stained and, in my opinion, not overly realistic, and one triple layer stained, more realistic for close-up scenes. We also have made one red ochre painted ball-headed club—there is an early image of a club like this one.

Armor

John Smith adapted indigenous Eastern North American slat armor, to Jamestown colonist use, and described it as a panel of small sticks “woven betwixt strings of their hemp, but so firmly that no arrow could possibly pierce them” (Tyler, 2001: 123).  Champlain and the mapmaker Bressani illustrated this Northeastern armor as well.  We have constructed a set of wood-rod armor such as is seen in these old images of early 1600’s warriors, but shorter; covering only the vital organs.  The knee and shin-length armor drawn by Champlain may have been used, but experimentation had shown that it is much too clumsy to use in hit-and-run woodland warfare, and offers little additional effective protection.  Thus ours was redesigned to protect the thorax and abdomen, yet be light and easy to run in. If the armor was breached the arrow could be removed.  A willow stick was split; the pith scraped out then the end was rounded so as to follow the arrow path.  It was oriented so as to cover the arrow barbs, and then bound to the arrow shaft and the assembly pulled out as one piece (Tyler, 2001: 75).

Shields

We need woven cedar shields as well.  Shields were also made from moose rawhide, bark or wood (Wilbur, 1995: 82)

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PART III 

OUTFITTED “1609” CLOTHING/ACCESSORY SYSTEMS

We will need to film both males and females pursuing subsistence activities to set up the Champlain Basin life before Champlain. The script outline also requires that the males be in scenes associated with individual and group canoe and overland travel illustrating trade, diplomacy and war, attendance at large and small ceremonial councils during daytime and night (outdoors and indoors) dealing with the decision to go to war, as well as the execution of the battle plan. 

#1  Zogamo (chief)

      Clothing

Moose hair coronet (precontact-1650)

Bone tube and disc, 3-strand necklace (precontact-1680)

Shell “Moon” (precontact-1760)

Disc shell bead necklace (precontact-1680)

Sheet copper bracelets (precontact-1680)

Paint box (precontact-1780)

Painted brain-tan shirt/jacket (precontact-1650)

            Finger woven leather  (precontact-1680)

Brain-tan breech cloth (precontact-1680)

Otter pouch (precontact-1780)

Fringed deer hide leggings  (precontact-1680)

      Warfare scenes: Root club, bow, arrows and quiver.

      Ceremonial scenes: Spiral shaft staff; root club; steatite “L” shaped pipe with basal

keel; spindle-shaped bead wampum string, disc wampum string.

       Subsistence scenes: trident fish spear; longbow, arrows & quiver; two-piece harpoon

with a small ivory point.

Abenaki chief’s spouse & lineage leader (female)

      Clothing

Bone tube and disc head band (precontact-1680)

Olivella shell necklace (precontact-1680)

Mt. Lion claw on thong (precontact-1680)

Painted brain tan bodice (precontact-1680)

Deerskin mantle (precontact-1800)

Painted brain tan wrap around skirt (precontact-1680)

Pre contact style deer hide leggings (precontact-1680)

            Fringed leather girdle (precontact-1680)

Mink pouch (precontact-1780)

      Ceremonial scenes accessories Woman’s staff.

      Subsistence scenes accessories: Ash-splint basket.

Abenaki war leader

      Clothing

Braided leather headband  (precontact-1680)

Bone disc necklace (precontact-1680)

Bone tube and polar bear claw necklace (precontact-1680)

Sheer copper armbands (precontact-1680)

Black imitation wool mantle (precontact-1730)

Tanned leather breech cloth (precontact-1680)

Brain-tan pouch (precontact-1680)

(no leggings)

      Warfare scenes accessories: set of wood-rod armor, lance with steel head, bow,

arrows and quiver, ball-headed club.

       Ceremonial scenes accessories: Micmac style pipe, ball-headed club.

      Subsistence scenes accessories: trident fish spear, large harpoon.

War leader’s spouse

Clothing

Braided leather headband  (precontact-1680)

Catlinite and steatite necklace (precontact-1680)

Woman’s knife (precontact-1680)

Leather bodice (precontact-1680)

Painted brain tan wrap around skirt (precontact-1680)

Mink pouch (precontact-1780)

Ceremonial scenes accessories: Woman’s staff.

Subsistence scenes accessories: basket.

Deer runner

            Leather bodice (precontact-1680)

Tube bone and deer dewclaw (precontact-1680)

Disc bone bead w/wolf claws (precontact-1680)

Brown imitation wool mantle (precontact-1730)

            Leather belt w/dew-claw fringe (precontact-1680)

Painted leather wrap around skirt (precontact-1680)

Brain tan pouch (precontact-1680)

Young man

      Clothing

            Brass bead necklace (1600-1780)

Leather breechcloth (precontact-1680).

      Warfare scenes accessories: Lance with steel head, bow, arrows, and quiver, root

club.

      Ceremonial scenes accessories: Micmac style pipe, ball-headed club.

      Subsistence scenes accessories: trident fish spear, large harpoon.

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PART IV 

SET CONSTRUCTION

Shelter

The Champlain-era Missisquois used two kinds of permanent shelters.  We are unable to build full size examples, so we are using models of wigwams and longhouses for the video production.  The first lodge form is the single-family conical wigwam, perhaps erected over a slight depression making a “semi-subterranean” shelter.  We have one 3’ high model built to represent this housing type.  The second lodging type is the multi-family longhouse.  Post molds from Wabanaki –area longhouses seem to imply rounded ends.  In addition, Wilbur (1995:78) believes that “Algonkian” New England long houses were a continuous arc, like the steel “Quonset hut,” rather than with straight upright walls.  Thus we have had round end round roofed models made.

Canoes

We have one 16’ original bark canoe for use, and an offer of two others.  Bark canoes, some quite large were in use well before 1600, for Jacques Cartier described them in 1535, indicating that two canoes carried 17 men; decades later Champlain described 20’-23’ canoes that could carry ½ ton. (Adney and Chaplele, 1983:7).  However, later Micmac and Maliseet war canoes were not over 18’ long, only large enough to carry three or four warriors, yet built for speed, narrow with sharp ends, and the bottom as smooth as possible.  Each canoe had insignia of each of its warriors, and the war leader had his personal mark (Adney and Chaplele, 1983:10).

Ceramics

Small, brown-colored vessel

            We have as of now one small “Algonquin-style” conical base pot.

Food and food processing

12 ears of corn

Corn was the agricultural mainstay of the Abenakis, so we need some corn around the set for ambiance.  We have modern varieties, selected for small ears to best approximate precontact types.

2 artificial Moschata squashes

We have reproduction squashes, since the originals will rot quickly.

Bowl and spoon

Champlain in 1608 noted that Indians came to a feast, each bringing his wooden bowl and spoon (Wilbur, 2001: 79)

Fire making

A bow drill was used to make fire, two handrests are at the Peabody Museum (Wilbur, 2001:99)

Wood mortars

They were usually unadorned, except for Mohigan examples.  Oak was the preferred wood, although black gum and apple were listed by Gladys Tanbtequidgeon (Wilbur, 2001:113)

Copper Kettles

Hudson in his 1609 exploration of the Penobscot Bay, noted that the “country people” had obtained copper kettles from the French (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987: 14

Trivets

Hudson in his 1609 exploration of the Penobscot Bay, noted that the “country people” had obtained these iron stands to hold pots over a fire from the French (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987: 14).  

Basketry

Large plaited mat

New England interior mats were made from cattails and bulrushes (Wilbur 2001: 41).  We use a modern woven grass mat, but one that is of a style that is possible for use by the Abenakis.  It will furnish a backdrop for much of our close-up filming.

Smaller round basket

            This is a prop for collecting smaller vegetables like beans etc.

Pack basket

            This is a prop for collecting larger vegetables such as corn.

Ash splints

            This can be used in domestic scenes to imply basket construction

Birch bark container

            This small bark container can be a domestic set detail.

Net

            A coarse hemp net is a good backdrop

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PART IV:

ORIGINAL CHAMPLAIN-CONTACT ERA IMAGERY

Any historical film that claims any scholarly credibility must be illustrated with well-documented imagery and text.  Almost all applicable archival imagery of Early Contact Period Northeastern Native Americans is in the hands of elite Euroamerican institutions that will not allow their imagery to be used by the descendents of those drawn or photographed without payment of a fee.  This is unacceptable to politically aware indigenous peoples, since it applies yet another layer of colonialism and exploitation.  Therefore, the Wôbanakik Heritage Center has pursued an acquisition policy regarding original 18^th century prints and maps of the Champlain Period as well as 19^th and early 20^th century (pre-1922) imagery on Ebay; as well as antique shops and galleries.  Incomplete or severely damaged 17^th century maps were affordable at auction, and we purchased examples with Northeast North America intact -- to form the basis of graphics to be used in the film.  These images have been converted, in their entirety, to the JPEG format for insertion in the digital editing program.  The Wôbanakik Heritage Center makes these digital images available at no charge to Indigenous organizations, but does not allow their use by Euroamerican organizations, which have the capital to obtain the same or equivalent images from traditional sources.

Europeans/European technology:

Samuel de Champlain (19^th Century woodcut print)

Samuel de Champlain shooting the Mohawks (17^th Century print, reprinted in 19^th

century)

Samuel de Champlain shooting the Mohawks (Early 20^th Century print)

French Ships at Quebec (19^th Century woodcut print)

French Ship (Early 20^th Century print)

French being guided by Natives (Early 20^th Century print)

Champlain using the astrolabe (Early 20^th Century print)

Tadoussac (Early 20^th Century print)

Native Americans/Technology

            Calumet ceremony, small/simplified image (early 18^th Century print)

            War Dance, small/simplified image (early 18^th Century print)

            Elders’ council, small/simplified image (early 18^th Century print)

            Marriage ceremony, small/simplified image (early 18^th Century print)

            Large Council w/burning village in background (early 18^th Century print)

            Small Council (early 18^th Century print)

            Shaman w/bird hunting in background (early 18^th Century print)

            Chief’s wife w/deer hunting in background (early 18^th Century print)

            Natives afflicted w/disease (early 18^th Century print)

            Healing ceremony (early 18^th Century print)

            Burial ceremony (early 18^th Century print)

            Wampum belt and string (early 18^th Century print)

            Ball-headed war club (early 18^th Century print)

            Canoes/paddles (early 18^th Century print)

Maps, 17^th Century

“Nouvelle France” (Bressanni 1657)

“Amerique Septentronale” (Sanson D’ableville 1650)

Derivative imagery for video editing

In addition to entire imagery, certain sections of images owned by the Wôbanakik Heritage Center were digitally extracted and manipulated so as to be a stand-alone image.  These pictorial abstracts were necessary to illustrate specific technologies such as the late 16^th century arquebus, wampum strings, war clubs, canoes, councils, hunting scenes, 17^th century French ships, burning villages and others.  Decorative elements, such as map cartouches and seals were also extracted for use in animated titles.  The extracted and customized images were then rendered into three final formats.  The first was printed on an archival, clear white backdrop, the second was on a yellow-brown stained and water-wrinkled backdrop simulating worn, antique laid paper, and the third was on a full or partial blue or green backdrop for applying chroma-key special effects. 

Bibliogaphy

_____  1991 “Glass Trade Beads in the Northeast” The Fogelman Publishing Co. RD 1 Box 240, Turbotville, PA 17772

Adney and Chaplele, 1983.  Bark canoes and skin boats of North America. Washington: Smithsonian Institution press.

Faulkner, Alaric and Gretchen Faulkner 1987.  The French at Pentagoet:1635-1674  New Brunswick Museum and Maine Historic Preservation Commission

Flanders, Richard, 1977 Beads: their use by the Upper Great Lakes Indians.  Grand Rapids, Michigan Indian Press

Sargent, B. W. 1995 Bows of the Wolf: 12 Unique designs of Northeastern North America.  Salem, MA: Tracking Winds.

Tyler, Colin, 2001.  Native American Weapons.  Norman: University of Oklahoma Press